Receipt date: 06/16/2021 / Revision date: 10/11/2021 / Acceptance date: 11/16/2021

Introduction

Self-concept and self-esteem are two concepts strongly related to each other despite the fact that they have been considered ambiguous and widely discussed within the field of psychology (Ortega, Mínguez and Rodes, 2000; Pepe, Moreno-Jiménez and Massota 2021). The research carried out on self-concept determines that it has experienced a turning point since the mid-seventies from the works of Shavelson et al. (1976) and Marsh (1990); this term undergoes a change in the way of understanding it, replacing a one-dimensional vision by a hierarchical and multidimensional conception. It would come to be the result of a set of partial perceptions of the self that are structured in a hierarchical organization formed by a set of beliefs that the individual considers true regarding himself, which are the result of a process of analysis, valuation and integration of the information that he receives from his own experience and the relationship with others (González, Núñez, González & García, 1997). It is a multidimensional perspective because it integrates both descriptive or cognitive aspects corresponding to self-image and evaluative or affective aspects corresponding to self-esteem (Marsh & Craven, 2016; Álvarez, Herrera, Villalobos, & Araya, 2019). Within the construct, physical, academic, personal, and social components are distinguished. With respect to the physical self-concept, this is measured by two subscales, physical and sporting ability and physical appearance. Fox's model (1988) divides it into four dimensions: physical ability, physical condition, physical attractiveness, and strength. This last model serves as a reference for the construction of the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP) by Fox and Corbin (1989), which is one of the most relevant instruments in recent years. With respect to the dimension of personal self-concept, this is used to refer to the emotional and moral, referring to the idea that each person has of him/herself as an individual being. It consists of at least four dimensions, the affective-emotional, the ethical-moral, the self-concept of autonomy, and the self-concept of self-fulfilment. This theoretical model has served as a reference for the design and elaboration of a Personal Self-Concept Questionnaire (PSC). As for the social structure, Parker and Smith (1983) published the Self-Description Questionnaire I (SDQI). This scale is used to work on the relationship with peers in order to measure the self-perception of acceptance among peers. Finally, the academic dimension responds to the assumption that school behaviour cannot be understood without considering the perceptions that the subject has of him/herself and, in particular, of his/her own academic competence (Goñi and Fernández, 2008). Following the model of Shavelson et al. (1976), the academic self-concept is subdivided into the perception of competence in the various school subjects. For this purpose, the Academic Self Description Questionnaire (ASDQ) was created.

On the other hand, self-esteem is one of the oldest concepts in psychology, being analyzed for the first time in 1890 by William James in his book Principles of Psychology (Branden 2004). Years later, Morris Rosenberg and collaborators began to refer to issues concerning self-concept and self-esteem valuation (Rosenberg, 1957, 1965, 1986; Rosenberg & Tielens, 1953; Rosenberg & Simmonds, 1972). However, it was not until the 1980s when the concept was used more frequently in different fields such as advertising, education, and politics, among others, and it was understood as a variable that influences personal success (González, 1999). Despite its relevance, there are difficulties in defining it due to its strong association with variables such as self-concept, self-efficacy, or self-image (Valentine, DuBois, & Cooper, 2004; Cascales & Prieto, 2018). From a psychological perspective, it has been conceptualized as an attitude towards oneself linked to the personal belief of one's own abilities, social relationships, and future achievements (Hewit, 2002). According to a multidimensional analysis, it was determined that self-esteem also has different dimensions, this comprises four; the personal area that refers to the evaluation that the individual makes of himself, his body image, and abilities. The second area is the academic that is related to the evaluation that the person makes of his performance in the school environment, taking into consideration his productivity and capacity. The third area is the family, which is the evaluation that the person makes of his or her interactions with the members of his or her family group. Finally, the social area is the evaluation that the individual carries out with respect to his or her social interactions (Coopersmith, 1967). Cubas, Marco, Monfort, Villarrasam, Pardo, and García (2019) highlight that self-esteem is the most influential factor in social relationships on the basis of a study conducted on pre-adolescents and young people.

Different studies show how both terms have a marked evolutionary character that is propitiated with variations of the same attending to the specific needs of each individual, and this is how through intersubjective interactions and throughout the life cycle the image of oneself is constructed (Shun & Conde, 2009; Tabernero, Serrano & Mérida, 2017). It is even more important in adolescence since it is the period of time in which the individual undergoes the most changes. Throughout this period, some studies agree that there is a decline that tends to recover in later years in the case of men since, in the case of women, self-esteem levels tend to remain low throughout the cycle (Álvarez et al., 2019; Parra et al., 2004; Savin-Williams & Demo, 1984). A similar trend is also observed in self-efficacy, with a significant decrease, especially in those studies that assess self-efficacy related to school materials that can be attributed to the changes that arise after the transition from elementary school to middle school or high school (Bandura, 2006; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Urdan & Midgley, 2003). Somewhat different is the trend shown in psychological well-being and life satisfaction, as it seems to be a very stable variable. (Huebner, 2004; Huebner et al., 2000).

Depending on the life experience and the perceived stimuli, these constructs generate in the individual a psychological well-being or discomfort referred to the development of human potential and the psychological functioning of the person. Molina and Meléndez (2006) conceive psychological well-being as a personal construct focused on the individual's ability to interact harmoniously in life circumstances. Ryff (1989) formulated a multidimensional model referring to psychological well-being that was composed of six factors that include self-acceptance, personal growth, the belief that life has a purpose, the development and maintenance of quality relationships with others, environmental mastery, and a sense of personal self-determination. Each of these dimensions points to the challenges to which the individual is exposed in his or her constant attempts to function fully (Cubas et al., 2019; Keyes, 2006). In 2004, Reid conducted a study with American adolescents, he found that self-esteem and self-concept better predicted males' psychological well-being than females, as well as their interpersonal harmony. (Reid, 2004). On the other hand, Dumont and Provost (1999) stated that high self-esteem in adolescents is associated with a less negative perception of everyday stress since young people with high self-esteem enjoy more positive experiences and are more effective in coping with negative experiences, generating more adaptive responses after a failure (Dodgson and Wood, 1998; Sanchez et al., 2011; Tashakkori, Thompson, Wade and Valente, 1990). They also perceive themselves to have less responsibility for negative feedback than those with lower self-esteem (Campbell & Fairey, 1985; Jussim, Yen, & Aiello, 1995) since they tend to make attributions in a more controllable way (Godoy, Rodríguez Naranjo, Esteve, & Silva, 1989) and are more persistent in the face of tasks (Sommer & Baumeister, 2002); they plan their responses more in the academic environment (Gázquez, Pérez, Ruiz, Miras, & Vicente, 2006) and obtain higher levels (Lerner et al., 199; Rokka et al., 2019).

As for self-concept, its maintenance in the academic environment favours a better perception of self-efficacy and the use of better learning strategies, which facilitate a deep processing of information (García et al., 2010; Gargallo, Garfella, Sánchez, Ros, & Serra, 2009; Núñez et al., 1998). Regarding interpersonal relationships, adolescents with high self-esteem are less susceptible to peer pressure (Zimmerman, Copeland, Shope, & Dielman, 1997), getting better impressions from peers (Robins, Hendin, & Trzeniewski, 2001), and are more approachable (Filippoe et al., 2018; Neyer & Asendorpf, 2001).

When young people with lower self-esteem are exposed to a situation of failure, they perform a less effective coping. Thus, they tend to overgeneralise failures (Kernis, Brockner, & Frankel, 1989) and direct their behaviours to avoid the negative emotions they produce (Park & Maner, 2009). Crocker and Wolfe (2001) state that from an early age people learn avoidance responses to experiences that generate negative emotions, which generates that they may even have difficulties to deal effectively with these situations, causing possible failures to be repeated, thus feeding back a low self-esteem. This fact contributes to behaviours that focus on satisfying self-esteem despite the fact that other actions may be more satisfactory. 

The present study aimed to examine the influence of self-concept and self-esteem on the psychological well-being of Spanish adolescents in order to pool knowledge about these variables, as it would be very useful for the promotion of personal development in this group.

Overall objective

• Identify empirical studies that relate the influence of self-esteem and self-concept on the psychological well-being of adolescents.

Specific objectives

• Find out the measurement instruments used in studies on self-esteem, self-concept, and psychological well-being.
• Bring together existing information on gender differences in self-esteem and self-concept.
• Investigate in scientific productions if self-esteem and self-concept are protective factors against risk situations such as school failure or consumption of toxic substances.

Method

A systematic review of empirical quantitative studies examining the relationship between self-esteem and self-concept and psychological well-being in Spanish adolescents was carried out. The search considered all available studies from 2010 to November 2020. For this purpose, an exhaustive analysis of the literature was carried out in the databases PubMed, Dialnet, EBSCO, and 1findr.

The article selection process that has been followed is: 1) search each database (PubMed, Dialnet, EBSCOhost, and 1findr) applying the terms (e.g. "self esteem AND Spanish adolescents"); 2) reject documents belonging to books, abstracts, reviews, notes, editorials from each database; 3) review the titles and abstracts of the databases in order to eliminate duplicates; 4) finally, examine the full text of each article to select the definitive battery. 

The search terms used in PubMed were: "self esteem AND Spanish adolescents" with a total of 1270 results of which 4 articles were used; "self concept AND Spanish adolescents" with a total of 1124 results of which 3 were used; "self esteem AND teenagers AND Spanish" with a total of 1240 results of which 1 was used.

In the case of Dialnet the following terms were used: "autoestima y adolescentes españoles" with a result of 768 of which 2 were used; "autoconcepto y adolescentes españoles" with a total of 88 results of which 1 was used.

With respect to EBSCOhost, the terms used were: "self esteem IN adolescence Spanish" with 36995 results of which 3 were used; "self esteem AND sex difference IN adolescence Spanish" with 54301 results of which 2 were used; "self esteem AND adolescents Spanish" with a total of 115 of which none were used; "self concept AND adolescents Spanish" with a total of 94 results of which none were used.

Finally, in 1findr the keywords used were: "self esteem AND Spanish adolescents" with a total of 148 of which 5 were used; "self esteem AND Spanish students" with a result of 165 of which 3 were used; "self esteem AND sex difference IN Spanish adolescents" with a result of 812 of which 4 were used; "self esteem AND Spanish teenagers" with a result of 20 articles of which 1 was used; "self esteem AND sex difference IN Spanish teenagers" with a result of 103 of which 4 were chosen; "self concept AND Spanish teenagers" with a result of 19 of which 1 was chosen.

Therefore, the studies that were potentially relevant within the criteria to follow were 33, of which 27 were in English and 6 of them in Spanish. The duplicate articles found during the analysis of the different databases were 14 studies.

The inclusion criteria that have been followed are empirical quantitative studies, cross-sectional, prospective, longitudinal cohort and case-control designs, participants aged between 10 and 20 years of Spanish nationality and schooling, with studies in English and Spanish, with a minimum sample of 50 participants.

As for the exclusion criteria: the place where the study was carried out, discarding studies focused on international adolescents, related articles but which use a medical perspective in their study, commentaries, books, opinion articles and congresses, empirical qualitative studies, participants who have chronic, physical or psychological illnesses, people with functional diversity.

Instruments

The most commonly used scales in the different studies are the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Self-Concept Scale Form 5 (AF5), and the Self Description Questionnaire (SDQ-2).

The Rosenberg self-esteem scale was created in 1965 by M. Rosenberg. It is a Likert-type scale consisting of 10 items with 4 response options; from extremely agree (4) to extremely disagree (1). 5 of its items are direct and 5 inverse (3,5,8,9,10), where each one of them is a statement about personal worth and self-satisfaction. The minimum score that can be reached is 10 and the maximum is 40. The scale showed high reliability; test-retest correlations in the range of 0.82 to 0.88. This scale has been widely analyzed since it is considered one of the best measures of global self-esteem. The analysis of its internal consistency has shown that this scale is internally consistent in samples of adolescents (Francis & Wilcox, 1995; Hagborg, 1996; McCarthy & Hoge 1982) as well as in samples of university students and adults (Dobson, Guoudy, Keith & Powers, 1997).

On the other hand, the Self-Concept Scale Form 5 (AF-5) was created in 1999 by García and Musitu. It is a Likert-type scale that allows 11 response possibilities, where 0 is never and 10 is always, consists of 30 items that evaluate different aspects of self-concept in children, adolescents, and adults in different aspects, social, academic, professional, emotional, family, and physical with 6 items each (García & Musitu, 2014). Its consistency coefficient is 0.84.

The next most widely used is the Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ-2) developed by Marsh in 1899. It consists of 102 items, although there is an abbreviated version consisting of 51 items. It is one of the most widely used multidimensional measures of self-concept in research and is considered among the best in terms of psychometric properties and construct validity. It presents 11 dimensions of self-concept, firstly, the academic ones that are verbal, mathematical, and general academic, and seven non-academic dimensions that include physical ability, physical appearance, relationships with the same sex, relationships with the opposite sex, relationships with parents, sincerity-truthfulness, and emotional stability. The internal consistency reliability estimates are between 0.80 and 0.90 (Bodkin-Andrews, Ha, Craven, & Yeung, 2010).

The questionnaires or scales that appear in the studies of this review that are not repeated as those previously mentioned are the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Questionnaire, the Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventory by Battel, the Self-Concept Evaluation Scale for Adolescents (ESEA2), the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP), the Physical Self-Concept Questionnaire (CAF), the Physical Self-Questionnaire (PSQ), and the Mind-Wondering Questionnaire (MWQ).

Results

The study consisted of a total of 34,825 subjects participating in the 33 selected investigations, with 49.6% being male and 50.4% female. Of the thirty-three articles, all indicated that the participants were adolescents. The youngest participant was 10 years old while the oldest was 21 years old. The most studied ages in the different publications comprised the age range of 14 to 16 years. 

Twenty-three studies (69.7%) looked at self-esteem and another nine articles (27.3) focused on self-concept. Only one analysis focused on the two variables together.

Some authors (Fernández, Grao, Nuviala, & Pérez, 2014) show that a low self-concept leads to low physical and psychological inactivity and that this affects both personal satisfaction and eating a balanced diet. Results that coincide with the research of Monks, Ortega, and Rodriguez, (2015) who state that sedentary life negatively affects self-esteem and weakens the dedication to strengthen the self-concept. Contreras and Cuevas (2019) show how increased physical activity produces an indirect positive effect on self-esteem as do Gómez and Ortega (2016) who confirm that sport and self-esteem correlate positively. Castillo, Queralt, and Molina (2011) state that self-esteem is positively related to greater vitality and this provides greater initiative to perform physical activities. Regarding the relationship with self-concept, Revuelta, Esnaola, and Goñi (2016) conclude that physical activity and self-concept have a bidirectional influence, with men having a better self-concept than women, who also show better motor skills that help to maintain a positive self-concept.

Regarding school performance, Gómez, Ortega, and Romera (2016) state that in this area the learner should be empowered through regular interventions because they show a lower level of self-esteem compared to adolescents from other countries, an argument in which Castillo, Chinchilla, Lourenço, and Onetti (2019) who made a comparison with adolescent students from Portugal agree. These authors claim that the scores on the scales of the Spaniards provide significantly lower data. Castillo, Fernández, and Onetti (2019) in their study appreciate significant differences in the self-concept of adolescents in the school transition, showing that those who attend secondary school have lower levels of self-esteem than primary school students. Castejon, Golar, Miñano, and Veas (2016) agree on these results due to the fact that in their sample they state that there is low performance associated with low self-esteem of adolescents in late school age, just like the research conducted by García, García, Serra and Zacarés (2018) who recognize that in late adolescence lower levels of self-esteem are found, this generates that adolescents stop trusting in their abilities and become demotivated causing a sense of frustration by their experiences of failure and making success external attributions and failures internal attributions, which tends to worsen their self-concept with a high emotional cost. All empirical studies that associate self-esteem and self-concept with academic performance affirm that parents and teachers are a great source of influence for students.

Another of the aspects analyzed is the appropriate use of the Internet, different authors have shown that low self-esteem and a negative self-concept correlates positively with the inappropriate use of social networks. Amigo, Errasti, and Villadangos (2019) were the ones who based their work on the relationship of self-esteem with the use or abuse of social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram; in this study they showed that users who have a lower self-esteem are those who perform more compulsive behaviours in social networks and those who invest more time for their own acceptance. The results also indicated that there is a significant relationship between the level of self-esteem presented by the subject and the level of internet addiction, being the subjects with higher self-esteem those who abuse the network less.

In the family environment, there is a consensus regarding the reviews made. Suthors such as García, García, Serra, and Zacarés (2018) argue that the results of adolescents from more authoritarian or negligent families have lower self-esteem, agreeing with Ferradas, Freire, and Regueir (2019) being the negative experiences at home a determinant that contributes to a negative self-definition and self-valuation of the adolescent since it is common that those who have lived in a hostile environment develop poor self-esteem and self-concept. 

Regarding the victims of sexual abuse, the studies addressed as those of Acosta, Checa, Matheo, and Parron (2019) show significant differences between subjects with and without a history of sexual abuse in terms of their self-esteem, with the victims of such abuse having a low self-esteem and a negative self-esteem of themselves; this fact is associated with the vulnerability that the victim has experienced in the abuse. On the other hand, Monks, Ortega, and Sanchez (2015) argue that cultural victimization has a negative effect on self-esteem and on the emotional state of the adolescent. 

Finally, regarding gender, there are discrepancies with studies claiming that there are no significant differences between genders and educational levels in adolescence (Galiana et al., 2015), although others such as Gómez, Mendoza, and Piano (2016), Oliva, Parra, and Sánchez (2017), among others, claim that women have alarmingly lower levels of self-esteem than men. It has been seen that women with low self-esteem suffer greater episodes of anxiety due to the stress involved in trying to show an ideal image of themselves with the aim of convincing others of their worth when in reality the image they have of themselves is negative. This fact generates a tendency to a fragile and unstable identity as well as being somewhat changeable and suffering a feeling of vulnerability to the opinion of others. 

Discussion and conclusions

The main objective of this systematic review was based on identifying empirical studies that relate the influence of self-esteem and self-concept on the psychological well-being of adolescents. These terms have been considered ambiguous within the field of psychology and, therefore, a relevant object of study in various theoretical formulations and empirical research (Góngora & Casullo, 2009; Ortega, Mínguez & Rodes, 2000) being constructs of clinical interest due to their relationship with psychopathological conditions and, in general, with the psychological well-being of individuals (Vázquez, Vázquez-Morejón & Bellido, 2013). The selected research related variables such as physical activity, academic performance, internet use, parentality, and abuse. 

Regarding physical activity, all those studies that evaluated through the AF5 conclude that practicing physical activity improves the self-concept of the general population making distinctions between genders which directly influences their psychological well-being (Hortigüela & Pérez, 2015; Reguera & Gutiérrez, 2015; Hortigüela, Pérez & Calderón, 2016; Frutos de Miguel, 2018). These results show that adopting active lifestyles are indicators of psychological well-being both in measures of multidimensional physical self-concept and general self-evaluations, allowing to improve the self-perceptions of adolescents, a fundamental aspect in such a critical age and exposed to continuous internal and external evaluations (Contreras & Cuevas, 2019). 

Based on school performance, it has been shown that self-esteem and self-concept directly influence academic performance, but that this depends on other variables such as the sense of competence and the sense of self-efficacy, among others. In this line, Carrera, Fuentes, & Tomás, (2012) add that a determinant of self-esteem and self-concept can be found in the experiences of academic success, a negative expectation about the ability of the adolescent will cause a dropout instead of a search for strategies to overcome it (Gómez, Ortega & Romera, 2016).

In the research explored, there is global evidence regarding the influence of parenting since it correlates positively with both school and family self-esteem. There is a high relationship between the perception of parental disapproval and negative self-esteem. Children who feel rejected by their parents, especially by their mother, see their self-esteem affected. (Gómez, Muñoz & Haz, 2017). It can be stated that "what parents feel, think, and do for their children and the way they communicate it, impacts the way children conceive of themselves" (Badury & Dantangnan, 2009). This is what is commonly called the Pygmalion Effect from the field of Psychology. Authors such as Holloway, Park, and Stone (2017) expose in their different investigations that parents relate to the school based on their own life experiences since there is a positive association between the expectations and aspirations of parents and their results. It is important to highlight that it is affection, trust, and the promotion of autonomy that makes this effect become positive for young people (Urías, Valdéz and Wendlandt, 2016). In addition, different studies show how the level of education of the children is related to the education of the parents or to the cultural and social capital that each family possesses (Sánchez & Valdés, 2016).

Regarding internet use, there is a consensus that high self-esteem acts as a protective factor since these adolescents can socialize without the need to hide their identity or create fake profiles to make up for their shortcomings. Thus avoiding falling into the vicious circle proposed by some authors on the misuse of the Internet (Amigo, Errasti & Villadangos, 2019). 

Finally, with regard to gender differences, a gap is perceived as a result of factors ranging from biological dispositions to the way in which children socialize, desired or expected patterns of behaviour by society, in addition to the role played by institutions and markets (Garaigardobil, Dará and Pérez, 2015).

The practical implications that would complement the research carried out would be based on emphasizing the establishment of spaces of trust and security in adolescents, so that the concerns that they have are dealt with from a situation of comfort, for which the promotion of communication between family members and peers would help, providing both the environment and the person with sufficient tools to deal with the situations that occur.

With regard to the limitations of the review, it is important to emphasize that this is an exploratory type of research and the generalizations made in it must refer to the same age range and context from which it was initially extracted, although without ignoring the fact that it is a reality that can be extrapolated. On the other hand, the age range chosen is very broad and adolescence is a period of constant change. A third limitation is that factors such as the transition from primary to secondary school or to higher education have not been taken into account; this can affect the change of context of the school, and the help of professionals and family members would be needed so that these changes are not decisive.

Regarding future lines, it would be important to determine the determining factors or variables that influence women to have lower levels of self-esteem and self-concept compared to men as it may be related to the level of self-demand, social pressures, or distorted canons existing in society. It would also be of vital importance the establishment of programs for the orientation of parents and teachers regarding the influence of their judgments. In the academic field, they should be included in the curricular aspects of the teachers or in the orientation department in order to contribute to the good personal development of the students. In the family environment, providing parents and possible siblings with tools for an adequate affective communication.

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