Fecha de recepción: 03/04/2020 / Fecha de revisión: 23/07/2020 / Fecha de aceptación: 07/09/2020

Introduction

The most remote records of an experience of distance education - EaD, according to Nunes (2009, p.02), occurred in 1728, by an institution in Boston (USA), which offered shorthand classes (technique to improve the speed of writing) by correspondence and were taught by Caleb Philips. All this in a very spontaneous way and without any official recognition or much personalization.

The same author (2009, p.2-6) continues with the literature and reports an offer of shorthand courses in Great Britain in 1840, conceived by Isaac Pitman; in 1979, courses on safety in mines were offered in the United States, organized by Thomas J. Foster; in the same year, Cuba creates a faculty of education directed by the University of Havana. Foster; in the same year, Cuba created the faculty of education directed by the University of Havana; in 1973, Canada created a pilot project at Athabasca University with the use of intensive tutoring through telephones; in 1910, in Australia, the University Extension Center was created at the University of Queensland, St. Lucia, with blended learning courses. In 1951, a correspondence education department of the People's University was created in China; in 1930, Japan created informal correspondence courses sent by mail; in 1930, Russia initiated correspondence and broadcasting courses to qualify rural workers and improve workers; in 1969, the Open University was created in England and was the exponent in EaD for other universities; in 1972, Spain created its first distance university, using printed materials, broadcasting and television; and in 1988, the Open University of Portugal was created.

Next, the milestone of EaD in Brazil, according to Alves (2009, p.09), was in 1900, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, where the offer of typing courses by correspondence and/or private lessons was advertised in newspapers and brochures. Soon, it became a highlight in the Brazilian capital and the expansion of the repertoire was necessary to qualify professionals in different productive activities.

Costa (2012, p.281) reiterates that in 1923, there was the creation of the Rádio Sociedade do Rio de Janeiro, founded by Edgar Roquette-Pinto, which offered distance or blended courses, and were made available through radio broadcasting. Alves (2009, p.09) points out that, over time, other institutions joined the media, such as the Radio-Postal School, the Voice of Prophecy (of the Adventist Church) in 1943, Senac in 1946, the University of the Air in 1950 (with services in 318 localities), then the Mobral Project, Educational TV in 1960 and the arrival of computers in Brazil, by universities in 1970; until the era of personal computers, with the Internet in homes and educational establishments.

The same author (2009, p.11) highlights the milestone of Brazilian legislation in EaD, starting with the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education - LDB of 1961, with subsequent updating in 1996:

The first legislation addressing this modality is the LDB, whose origins date back to 1961. Its reform, ten years later, introduced a specific chapter on supplementary education, stating that it could be used in the classroom or through the use of radio, television, postal mail, and other media. In 1996, the country had a new LDB, and EaD became possible at all levels. It was a great advance, since it unequivocally allowed the operation of undergraduate and graduate courses, as well as in basic education, from elementary to high school, in the regular modality, as well as in youth and adult education and special education. The law had the great virtue of indirectly admitting free distance courses, including those offered by the so-called "corporate universities" and other educational groups.

Checking the legislation of EaD, on the website of the Brazilian Association of Distance Education - ABED (2020), it was found that:

In Brazil, the legal bases for distance education were established by the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education (Law No. 9.394, of December 20, 1996), which was regulated by Decree No. 5.622, published in the D.O.U. of December 20, 2005 (which repealed Decree No. 2494 of February 10, 1998 and Decree No. 2561 of April 10, 1998) with the regulation defined in Ministerial Ordinance No. 4.361 of 2004 (which repealed Ministerial Ordinance No. 301 of April 7, 1998). On April 3, 2001, Resolution No. 1 of the National Education Council established the norms for graduate courses sensu lato and stricto.

Thus, over the years, laws, rulings, ordinances, and decrees were published that progressively legitimized the EaD as a teaching modality that were published in recent years. We cite the Normative Ordinance No. 11, of June 20, 2017, on the creation, organization, accreditation, offer, and development of distance courses. The Opinion of the National Council of Education - CNE CES No. 462/2017, on the rules of operation of strict postgraduate courses; and Ordinance No. 2117, of December 6, 2019 which, regulates the workload of the EaD.

In this process, EaD has grown considerably in all areas and, consequently, its complexities (of meeting students' desires, teaching quality, teachers' working conditions, interactions, and vital technological tools), are challenges for Brazilian education and possible actions in public policies.

In this scenario, ABED releases the 2018 EaD Census with the following percentages (see Figure 1 below).

In this perspective, EaD and information and communication technologies - ICTs, have been fundamental tools in times of crisis, for education, in times of pandemic, such as the one experienced at the time of the Coronavirus (Covid-19), where institutions reinvent themselves in virtual spaces, overcoming the walls of educational institutions that, until now was a face-to-face relationship.

However, all educational institutions, worldwide, have used ICTs to solve the problem of confinement, teaching classes through platforms and software, which reinforce this virtual reality that is being investigated, using web classes, podcasts, discussion forums, portfolios, chats, among others.

Thus, this article originated in the discussions in the teachers' room about EaD, their concerns, rights, duties, advantages, and labor disadvantages of this "new category," which emerged with overwhelming force in educational institutions, covering the entire Brazilian territory.

On the other hand, the epistemological option to address this question arises from the need to know the professional working in EaD: the level of training, the work schedule, the remuneration, the level of knowledge and mastery of information technology, and their willingness to use technological tools.

In view of the above, some questions are posed to the discussion: Who are the professionals working in EaD? How is their career plan and remuneration organized? What about the working day? The level of knowledge of teachers? The level of education? Are they coherent with their role?

Therefore, the objective of this research is to analyze the rights, advantages, and disadvantages contemplated in the Consolidation of Labor Laws.

Methodology

In the present research, the use of the quantitative method was considered appropriate, used for medium and large collections of information, which require an analysis of variables. Supported by the referential of Fonseca (2002, p. 20) that, when the research has the need to verify a particular reality with large populations, this is the most appropriate method to have with objectivity, a real portrait of the object.

Taking the EaD teacher and his or her remuneration as the object of research, as a basis for the achievement of the objectives, this research sought, through the application of a questionnaire, to know the reality of teachers working in this modality and their needs in relation to the career plan, remuneration, working hours, and level of knowledge in computer science.

Given the above, it is considered as a hypothesis to investigate the degree of recognition of an EaD teacher by the institutions that hire them, the remuneration and working hours, to which they are subjected and the requirements of the institution, can contribute to a discussion that produces a possible change in this context producing the valuation of the professional who works in the same.

Sample

The sample was randomly composed of 150 teachers. As for the selection, it was focused on teachers working in public and/or private institutions of higher education and/or basic education, hired, or appointed in the EaD modality in the Northeast and Southeast regions of Brazil. The forms of contact with the teachers of the institutions were made through pedagogical departments, course coordinators, course secretaries, e-mails provided by the institutions, social networks, visits to institutions near the locations of the researchers, telephone contacts among others, and thus making official the invitation to participate in this research.

Since it is a sample with a significant territorial coverage, the first step was to send the form with the research tools, such as a questionnaire, a letter of invitation from the researchers, explaining the project, the objectives, the variables, the expected results, and an informed consent form to the departments and course coordinators of the contacted institutions: universities, colleges, and schools.

Through this first contact, we were provided with the e-mail addresses of the teachers, the submission of an explanatory e-mail, with a link to the questionnaire and informed consent to be answered electronically.

Research instrument

An ad hoc questionnaire published on the Google Forms platform was used, consisting of six questions: Level of education? Do you work in an institution (public or private)? Monthly income in the EaD modality? Weekly hours of work in the modality? What is your level of computer literacy? What tools do you use in your classes and/or in day care?

Data Analysis

For the analysis of the suggested questionnaire, Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) software were used as an instrument to organize and tabulate the data; once analyzed quantitatively, graphs were prepared to learn about the reality of the teachers working in this modality and their needs in terms of career plan, remuneration, work schedule, as well as the level of computer literacy, since they are EaD teachers.

Ethical aspects of research

The research followed all the determinations related to the ethical aspects of research, according to Resolution 196/96 of the CNS, Ministry of Health. The anonymity and confidentiality of all material collected, whether in the form of text, image, or voice, was guaranteed.

Only the researchers had access to the material. None of the participants had any financial costs with the research, there were no physical risks to participants, and respondents were guaranteed the freedom to refuse to participate or to withdraw their consent at any stage of the research without penalty or prejudice.

Results

It is hoped that this research will provide insight into the different realities of teachers working in EaD, characterizing them by the institutions to which they belong to, their level of training, monthly remuneration, working hours, and their level of computer literacy.

In the process, it was analyzed that among the 150 invited professors; 56% are professors from private institutions. As shown below in Figure 2.

Taking into account the above, a reasonable balance between teachers from private and public institutions is considered.

Level of teacher training

In the context, when analyzing the level of training of the EaD professors, most of them are at the specialization level, accounting for 35.33% of the total number of guest professors (see Figure 3 below).

In comparison with the data collected by researchers, the latest Higher Education Census, "Docentes em exercício, na educação superior, por grau de formação" - Brasil 2008-2018, apud MEC/INEP (2018, p.65), verified that the degree of schooling of teachers, in exercise in higher education, mostly have a doctoral degree (see Figure 4 below).

In this perspective, Nicolini; Torres; Macedo & Câmara (2014, p.08), consider the teaching professor and/or doctor, a high performance researcher in terms of continuous, academic training and their improvement in the practice of teaching.

Thus, the continuous training and improvement of teachers is one of the necessary factors for the quality of teaching and the promotion of research and innovation.

Nóvoa (1997, p.28) states that teacher training starts with:

(...) not only with the knowledge and theories learned in schools, but with the teaching practice of all his former teachers and other people, things and situations with whom he interacts in teaching situations throughout his life.

Thus, the teacher is seen as an inventor, an explorer of new tools, a student of the entire educational process, from initial training, teaching practices, lesson planning, teaching materials, technological tools, methodology, pedagogical practices, evaluation instruments, discussion, and studies among teachers, as well as interventions made in the classroom or in the EVA.

However, this is a reality, although not consolidated, in EaD. In the first place, because the remuneration is not consistent with the training of a master's or doctoral teacher, but corresponds to the value of a full position in basic education, still depending on the educational institution and the region.

Thus, Mill (2006, p.96) points out that EaD is between the paradoxes of flexibilization versus the precariousness of teaching work, work overload versus teleworking, lack of continuous training, and low remuneration.

Remuneration of EaD teachers

According to França (2008, p.101-104), working relationships in EaD are precarious, compartmentalized, merely made of tasks, depreciating the intellectual role of the teacher, from his career plan, remuneration, working hours, lack of supervision by the competent bodies, as well as representativeness (unions and verification commissions).

From this perspective, the respondents' remuneration is analyzed below in Figure 5.

In the process, it was possible to realize that teachers are remunerated in different ways under the federal system, following CAPES Ordinance No. 15, dated January 23, 2017, remunerating professionals under scholarships, by positions held, such as tutors, formative teachers, and content teachers, in a minimum amount of R$ 765.00 for tutors and a maximum amount of R$ 1,300.00 for formative I teachers and content I teachers.

At the federal level, there is also the possibility for professors admitted as teachers to teach classes or hold management positions in Distance Education Centers to supplement their workload or perform extra activities (outside their working hours).

As for private institutions, it is observed that some institutions use their own face-to-face teaching professor to "monitor" the virtual learning environment - VLE, other institutions hire a professional, in the position of tutor or monitor to work in EaD, but with a face-to-face working day, from 30h to 40h per week. There are also work schedules with division of hours in face-to-face and distance.

Another relevant factor is in relation to the remuneration of teachers and the existence of contracts, as "service providers" in the form of individual micro-entrepreneurs - MEI.

For Veloso & Mill (2018, p. 120), this form of "contracting" is a fragmentation of teaching work, tending to an exploitation of workers with a large number of students, reinforcing the de-professionalization of the category and the lack of labor links with the institutions.

The same authors (2018, p.121), in a research on precarity of teaching work in EaD, with 677 teachers, found that 384 of them (56.72%) do not have any labor ties with the institutions. As shown in Figure 6 below.

In the process, Veloso & Mill (2018, p.122) state that tutor teachers only have contact with students and do not participate in the process of content construction and logistics of virtual environments. In addition, they analyze that 104 of the respondents (75.36%) fit into the profile of "no employment relationship (scholar)." As shown in Figure 7 below.

The research continues with the types of links established between the universities and the respondents who only have experience as face-to-face teacher-tutors. And again it was found that 58 respondents (86.57%) fit into the "no employment relationship (fellow)" profile. As shown below in Figure 8.

In the process, the authors (2018, p.124) investigate about the types of links established between universities and respondents who have experience only as teacher-authors/content writers. Moreover, it was found that 07 respondents (28%) fit into the profile "no working relationship (scholar)" and 16 respondents (64%) have link as a teacher. As shown below in Figure 9.

Finally, Veloso & Mill (2018, p.124) sought to know the types of links established between universities and respondents who have experience only as teacher-trainer-trainer/applicators. Moreover, they found that 12 respondents (27.91%) fit the profile "no employment relationship (trainee)" and 27 respondents (62.79%) fit the profile "with link as a teacher." As shown below in Figure 10.

In the context, there are institutions that hire teachers by the format of "teleworking" that, according to the Consolidation of Labor Laws - CLT (2017, p. 29), in Chapter II, specifically in Article 75-B:

Teleworking is considered the provision of services mainly outside the employer's premises, with the use of information and communication technologies that, by their nature, do not constitute outside work.

According to Mill (2006 p. 152), labor relations in EaD are precarious and affect several agencies, such as:

(...) telecommuting makes explicit the problems of work organization: new systems of remuneration, new systems of work control, new occupational diseases or ailments, unilateral responsibility of employees, and even suppression of salaried positions in favor of independent workers. Moreover, teleworking does not contribute to job creation and may even act as a factor in the disappearance of available jobs.

However, when analyzing Article 75-B and the statements of Mill (2006. p.152), it is understood that there is a change of category between the "teacher" and the "teleworker." This means that the individual loses all his or her rights in terms of the career plan of an education professional, as well as other work organization issues.

EaD teachers' working hours

Considering the data on EaD teachers' remuneration, this research also sought to know the working hours. As shown below in Figure 11.

As presented above, there is no standardization of how EaD teachers are paid, as well as their working hours. However, it can be observed that most of the responding teachers are in the ranges of ≤ 20 hours per week.

In the same perspective, Veloso & Mil (2018, p. 125), in their research "The precariousness of teaching work in distance education: elements to think about the valuation of virtual teaching" verified that "(...) the majority of respondents, i.e. 248, work between 16 and 20 hours per week. There is also a considerable number of teachers who dedicate up to 15 hours per week to EaD functions." As shown below in Figure 12.

Another relevant point in this research, highlighted by Siqueira (2014, p. 103), in his master's thesis, is the existence of a lack of demarcation between work time and rest time:

The Occupation and Leisure Time dimension stood out, among the other dimensions, due to the importance and challenges of finding a balance point between the demands of work and the private life of the worker. During the focus group interviews, it became clear how difficult it is for distance education professionals to work with time management. It is noted that, in general, only 30% of respondents are able to set aside work hours to respond to emails and student questions and, when away from work, make time to spend with family and friends.

Mill (2006 p.96), in his doctoral thesis, exposes the perception of tutor teachers in the face of work overload:

(...) observed that there are some unpleasant aspects of working in distance education, and most of them focus on work overload, either from the perspective of excessive activities, the amount of time paid to perform such activities, the high number of students or class size, the low value of the class-hour, or other splits of work overload.

In the process, the same author (2006, p.97) describes the development of activities and mastery of technologies, as well as the wide range of competencies of EaD teachers, from Figure 13 below.

Therefore, we highlight Mill's (2006, p. 214) considerations on the working conditions of EaD teachers:

• High workload and double workday (in the case of women, it is a third workday, since household chores already take the place of a second workday).
• High number of students per teacher, ranging from 15 to 200 students for an average workload of 10 to 20 hours per week.
• Teleworking tends to be done at night or during free time off, because it is considered "botched," "temporary" or a supplementary source of income for the family group.
• Employment contracts in EaD, when they exist, are vague, temporary, part-time, sometimes paid in the form of scholarships (which avoids the creation of an employment relationship and waives the obligation to benefits such as the 13th salary).

The same author (2006, p. 214) highlights some of the vulnerabilities regarding the working conditions of EaD teachers:

• Wage income is, on average, low for a household's main source of income, in addition to the problems inherent in receiving wages in the form of scholarships, both for study and work.
• There is a lack of concern for the worker's expenses with equipment and services (electricity, Internet connection, etc.), which generates inadequate working conditions (e.g. inadequate furniture and spaces).
• The spaces and times dedicated to work are flexible according to responsibility, autonomy, and various needs: part-time work, work carried out in reproduction time, in the family space, in rest time, paid for an hourly workload lower than that negotiated in the contract.
• The teleworking teacher has difficulty managing his or her own time and workspace in the context of family and private life, which converts rest and leisure time and space into work time and place. The resulting dangers to personal and family health are ignored.
• There is a lack of information and support for guidance (from trade union associations, for example) regarding the rights and duties specific to teleworking. In addition, there is also a struggle for more appropriate legislation and guidance to empower teleworkers with respect to their rights.

However, the working conditions of teachers are precarious, which forces them to develop parallel activities. Which Veloso and Mill (2018, p. 126) analyzed in their research: "(...) 638 participants, which is equivalent to 94.24% of the respondents, said to exercise some other type of paid activity in parallel to the work with EaD". As shown below in Figure 14.

Finally, this is one of the realities of EaD on teachers' working conditions: their remuneration, working hours (management of working time vs. demand vs. rest time), and the working relationship with educational institutions.

Level of computer literacy

Another factor investigated in this research is the level of computer literacy of EaD teachers. This is considered as one of the fundamental competencies for any professional working in this teaching modality and accompanying students through ICTs.

In this perspective, Belloni (2006, p. 58) presents the technological competence for the teaching work, starting from two fundamental concepts in EaD, such as interactivity and interaction as the basis of face-to-face and virtual practices; defining interaction as a reciprocal action between agents, directly or indirectly, through VLE, social networks, telephone contacts, e-mails, and other means of communication. While the concept of interactivity is understood as the action of man on machines, on technologies, and other objects.

In the context, when analyzing the data on the levels of knowledge of EaD teachers in computer science, it was found that the intermediate level is the highest percentage and reaches 40.66% of the respondents. Subsequently, 30% of the respondents are found with a basic level, which is important to highlight and revisit Figure 6 on the relationship between the desired competencies for teaching work in EaD.

In this regard, the data collected on the subject are presented below in Figure 15.

The data analyzed show that there is a considerable group of basic level teachers in computer science. This is relevant when studying the concepts of "competence" under the different views and knowledge, based on the definition of competence in Perrenoud (1999, p. 30): "(...) is the ability to mobilize a set of cognitive resources (knowledge, skills, information, etc.). Solving a series of situations with relevance and effectiveness."

Paniago (2016, p. 383), states that EaD is a modality mediated by the new digital culture and that it reinforces flexibility, creation, collaboration, interaction, and asynchrony. In this sense, necessarily the teacher working in this modality must master the various technological resources that are within the attributions of EaD teachers.

Technological tools used by EaD teachers

In this perspective, the tools most used by the guest lecturers were analyzed and it was found that all respondents and 78.66% use slides as one of the main tools use the office package. According to table 16 below.

A relevant point is the "anti-plagiarism" tool, which only 42 of the invited professors use on a daily basis. Considering its importance for those working with research and especially in EaD. This is in line with Singh et al's (2020, p.208) assertions that anti-plagiarism programs are fundamental tools for the teacher to prevent unethical behavior and dishonest practices of students who transgress the property and intellectual production of others.

In this sense, this awareness practice should be a process of maintenance by teachers, as a need to teach students about the importance of giving full credit to the author, through proper citations.

Another relevant factor in this research is the technological tool most used by the respondents: 100% of them use the office package. This may be a mention for managers with respect to continuous training and the use of ICTs. This is in line with Libâneo's (2001, p.10) reflections that teacher training is necessary "to help them adjust their teaching to the new realities of society, of knowledge, of the student, of the diverse cultural universes."

In the process, the institutions that financially encourage teachers to acquire or update the technologies used in VLE practices, such as computers, educational applications, printers, furniture, mobile Internet access, and other tools necessary for virtual teaching are exceptional. This is close to the research of Faria & Silveira (2007, p.07) when they highlight the availability and encouragement of the use of ICTs as everyday tools, easily and quickly accessible.

Therefore, it is understood that the presented information formed a portrait of the EaD teachers' scenario, based on the teachers' level of education, remuneration, working hours, level of knowledge, and mastery of computer and technological tools.

Discussion and conclusions

This research considered that the EaD is an important device of social inclusion, the proximity of higher education to remote locations, with a more affordable tuition, flexibility with time and space, especially students with low income. This is in line with the statements of Ribeiro; Mendonça & Mendonça (2007, p. 2) about the modality and its different communication tools, which favors interaction between peers, in different spaces and times, between face-to-face and the online, classroom and VLE, facilitating access to basic and higher education and vocational training. As well as the need for methodological rigor, professional ethics, and social responsibility.

However, the reality of EaD teachers differs from the objectives of the modality and from the rights "traditionally" acquired by the category of classroom teachers, in terms of their recognition as teachers, labor rights, and improvements in public and educational policies. The remuneration and working hours, continuous training, and other aids that are relevant to the practices in EaD, in the blended and/or face-to-face poles, stand out.

In terms of remuneration and working hours, they are at a disadvantage because they lack regulation and are often not granted contact time with students in the VLE, feedback from discussion forums, chats, portfolios, production of materials, among other tasks. Without taking into account the high quota of students and their posts. Which goes hand in hand with the reflections of Veloso & Mill (2018, p.05) on the precariousness of the teacher in EaD and the new format of labor relations, with a bias of "flexibility," outsourcing, deregulation, destabilization, and prone to be named "teleworker."

However, this lack of regulation and job insecurity compromise the quality of teaching, as a portion of teachers see EaD as a "casual job" to supplement income or workload from classroom teaching, or as a gateway to teaching in higher education.

In this sense, EaD is considered a complementary labor activity, since its working conditions are precarious and its teachers are not adequately paid. Moreover, as described above, hiring at federal level is done through scholarships, i.e., with no labor link to the institution and no public competitions for EaD teachers.

As for universities and basic education institutions, the study shows that each institution has a hiring policy, highlighting the provision of service in the form of MEI and telework recognized by the CLT.

Another important factor in the context of EaD teachers for further research is the materials produced by them, which become "public" and are often not considered by the institutions as copyrightable. In addition, from this research, it was discovered that there are realities in which teachers were dismissed and their materials are still used by the institutions.

In this perspective, regarding the attributes of the EaD teachers in the different VLE interfaces, it is possible to realize through the data collected in this research that 30% of the teachers have knowledge and mastery of computers at a "basic" level, which may compromise the quality of the courses, since they need several technological tools to intervene. On the other hand, it was found that only 28% of the teachers use anti-plagiarism applications; 22.66% use podcasts, 22.66% use blogs, 64% use e-mail, and 100% work with office packages. This fact is close to the reflections of Ribeiro; Mendonça & Mendonça (2007, p. 5) in the sense that "Virtual learning environments aggregate several technologies found on the Web to provide communication, provision of materials, and course management."

The same authors (2007 p.10) reinforce that the teachers of this modality are responsible for the conFiguretion and orientation of the students, offering learning possibilities, through a set of characteristics that ICTs can subsidize in the process of interaction and success of the student in distance education.

However, the factors that make this category precarious are listed, requiring public policies, in terms of remuneration without labor relationship and not in accordance with the reality of teachers with master and doctoral degrees; working hours incompatible with the remuneration offered; lack of infrastructure (computers, internet access, software, printers, among others), lack of continuous training, and mastery of the competencies necessary for teaching in EaD.

According to the data collected in this survey, the educational level of the respondents is as follows: 35.33% of teachers with specialization and 14% of graduate teachers hold positions as tutors and teacher trainers. In addition, there are 20.66% of doctoral teachers and 30% of master teachers assigned in the positions of content teachers and teacher trainers. This is in line with Mill's (2006, p.96) statements about the precariousness of teaching work and the quality of teaching in EaD.

Therefore, this research made it possible to outline a "profile" of the EaD teacher, contributing with possible reformulations of the labor criteria adopted so far by educational institutions. To open a space for discussion, with future analyses, that will leverage a broader investigation by the researcher on the labor rights of these professionals and the equivalence between the face-to-face teaching teacher and the EaD teacher, being all of them graduates and/or postgraduates (lato sensu and/or stricto sensu).

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